براي تبادل لينک ابتدا مارا با عنوان دانلود رایگان نمونه سوالات وآدرس"http://mehre9.mihanblog.com" لينک نماييد سپس مشخصات لينک خود را در زير ارسال کنيد . در صورت وجود لينک ما در سايت شما لينکتان به طور خودکار در سايت ما قرار ميگيرد.

پس از ارسال مشخصات و مشاهده فرمان سيستم سايت را "Refresh" کنيد تا لينکتان را در قسمت لينک هاي تبادلي مشاهده کنيد.

تبادل لینک هوشمند [Link_Auto_Form]

 

Plato Educational policy in the ideal state. Plato developed his concept of educational policy in his two largest works, the republic and then laws. In the republic plato developed his concept of the state ,which embodied justice . it was a sort of utopia (for plato ,however ,the world of ideas ,because permanent is more real than the world facts ,which in state of constant flux. Rousseau believed that plato republic …is the best treatise on the education ever written , While the themes of these two dilologs would seem to be almost identical ,there are considerable differences between them . the republic is pure theory of the ideal state ,whereas the laws is a practical application to a hypothetical concrete case. The ideal society for plato is as immutable as a Doric temple. For,in an ideal state change can bring a bout only decadence and corruption .(law 797d). Society must therefore be protected from all that could upset the civic order and induce change . the guardians must devote themselves entirely to the service of the state . they may not possess material richrs (which give rise to jealousy conflict), they may not indulge in frivolities (which could compromise their integrity), nor may they entertain private ambition all they have must be held in common : room ,board ,wives and children. ( 1) One of tasks of education in the platonic state is to preserve the status quo All innovation is taboo .contrary to mast modern educational principles ,education must stand guard against all change and all forms of subversion . Despite his extreme conservatism .however, plato had some highly innovative ideas. For example, he espoused equality of the sexes at a time when women were relegated to the household. In the platonic state ,girls like boys ,do their gymnastics in the nude and are expected to go to war clad in the same armor as the man . they share the boys education , whit no discrimination between them.. moreover ,plato prescribes compulsory education for all ,that is for remembers of the guardian class. This idea however ,was not to receive application until much later ,at the time of the French revolution . compulsory schooling goes far beyond an elementary education . yet consists to say about the education of craftsmen land merchants ,which consists of no more than a simple apprenticeship,and slaves received no mention at all. Plato , indeed was the first to formulate a complete education system ,covering every aspect –from its administration to a detailed curriculum . in the law plato describes how education shold organized and administereded . the whole education system should be headed by a supervisor of education , far the most important of the highest offices in the state ,who whold supervise all aspects of education for children of both sexes.he should be a man of not less than 50 years and father of a legitimate family ,preferably of both sexes. He will have working under him superintendents of gymnasiums and svhools charge of their proper maintenance,as well as of the education given and the supervision of attendances and accommodation for vhildren of both sexes, together whit judges of performers contending in both musical and athletic competitions thes competition are because the careers of the guardians are determined by their results. Section two : further reading The Socratic teaching metod Socrates is presented as the archetypal educator. Thes already apparent in laches,which is about two eminent generals who are looking for a autor for their sons, and Werner jaeger ,in his paideia , as classical work an education in the ancient world , calls Socrates the most influential teacher in all European history. Socrates refuses to be taken for teacher of the sophist sort. He belived that in order to be qualified to teach ,one must know the subject taught. One most know how make shoes before teaching another the shoemaking art, and be able to train a physician,one must be acquainted whit the various diseases and their cures.as true philosopher ,Socrates make no claim to know anything ,indeed ,he is conscious of all that he does not know and consequently, is always searching for knowledge, whereas the other –both the sophists and the people in the street with whom he converses and whom he examines-live in the illusion that they possess knowledge . in fact exposing that illusion is first step in the process of learning to live a good life represented as harmonious relationship between a person and his /her final destiny ,which is moral and political in nature. In the prologue to the symposium there is delightful episode that serves as a good illustration of the Socrates method .socrates is late in arriving because ,as was occasionally his custom, he paused on the way ,lost in his own thoughts.agathon ,the host ,invites Socrates to sit next to him because I want to share this great thought that just struck you in the proch next door , at which socrate replies to agathon , I only wish that wisdom were the kind of thing one could share by sitting next to someone –if it flowed ,for instance ,from the one that full to the one that was empty ,like the water in two cups fiding its level through a piece of worsted. The Socratic metod is to be distinguished therefore frome the traditional metod of teaching , in which teachers seek to transmit their knowledge to their pupils , who are interactive metod in which teacher and pupil cooperate in the pursuit of knowledge through dialog.A series of questions and answers involve the two parties in the same cognitive pursuit (plato occasionally use image take from the hunt).this is yet another reason –a methodological one –why Socrates does not want to be described as one who possessed knowledge . This dialectical method runs through the entire work of plato, the read is drawn into the discussion as an active observer.plato the educator take his reads,entangled in their desires and illusions, and leads them patiently and through a critique suffused with irony,to the point of reflection and independence. Accordingly ,in plato mind philosophy are one and the same discipline .the Socratic metod of teaching has often been characterized as a maieutic metod or one in which the teacher assumesthe role midwife . a deciphering of this metod is contained in meno. There ,platos Socrates argues that there is no such thing as teaching ,only recollection and maintains that teachers should play the nrole of midwife in order to deliver their pupils of the knowledge they unconsciously possess. To illustrate this original metod Socrates conducts an education experiment.by questioning a young salve, he lead him to self –discovery of solution to relatively complicated problem in geometry. Section three .translation activities Translate the following passage in to Persian Plato was born in 428 b.c towards then end of that extraordinary period in human history when the foundation of spiritual life were being formulated by lao-tse(at the turn of the sixth century) Confucius (551-479),Buddha (c,55o-480) and Socrates (469-399)and Upanishads were being written (at the turn of the fifth century). He was born to family that belonged to the top rank of the Athenian aristocarcy.his father was descendant of codrus, last king of athen.the brother of one his mother ancestors was solon ,the Athenian stateman and lawn –maker and one of plato uncles, critias ,was to become a member of the council of thirty .plato was thus predestined to ply an active role in Athenian politics.in the seventh letter he explain way chose not to take that path instead he formulate the most significant political theory of ancient science politics.plato was times and with it founded the science of politics.plato was born soon ofter the death of pericles, who had been a friend of family and who had carried Athens to the heights of its power ,prosperity and culture. Sophocles and Euripides were among the great playwrights of the time who delighted the public , and young plato must certainly have met them but plato was also destined to witness the decline of that Athens to which he was so dearly attached. As a young man he endured , probably as a soldier ,the defeat of this city in the Peloponnesian war and experienced the ensuing decline of the Athenian democracy . the twilight of the classical age of Greece was approaching and with in the demise of the independent greek city –state, which were supplanted by the alxamdrian empire.plato lived in the perid of transition between classical Greece and the Hellenistic era that opened a new chapter in the history of the west Unit 2 Aristotle The education system In view of the essential role which education is required to play in the development of individual a and of society , Aristotle devotes a great deal of space to the development of an education system in his description of the ideal sity . unfortunately ,only a fragment of this description has survived . a good many question therefore remain unanswered . Aristotle belive that ,contrary to common practice of his day education was a responsibility of the state .what he worked out is therefore a genuine education Like plato ,Aristotle devises a veritable system of continuing education . education is not limited to youth ,it is a comprehensive process concerning the whole human person and lasting for a lifetime .this process is organizing in periods of seven yesrs ,just as in plato system .the first period is that of pre -school education . this is the responsibility of parent and more particularly of the father , who is responsibility for the existence of his children , which is thought the greatest good and for their nurture and upbringing . upbringing begins will befor birth ; the legislator must decide how best to mould the infant body to his will .with this end in view Aristotle indicates the best age for father and mother and even the best period for conception .namely winter .during pregnancy pregnant women also most take care of their bodies.they should take exercises and eat nourishing food and keep their mind as tranquil as possible. The newborn shoud have food with the highest milk content ,and less wine the better .children must exercise their bodies and become accustomed to the cold from their earliest years. Up to the age of 5 they should be trained through game .but they must not be vulgar or exhausting or effeminate . all indecent language and improper pictures should be banished completely as children must be protected foram all shameful sensation so that morally blameworthy phenomena are foreign to the spirit of young people . between the age 5 and 7 they must be spectators of the lesson they will afterwards learn.aristotle ducation system is thus clearly a system of continuing educatio .we should also e note that in Aristotles view ,that body reaches maturity between the ages of 30 and 35 ,the soul by the age of 49 ,it seems probable that these thresholds also marked stageas in the comprehensive system of education devised by Aristotle. When considering Aristotle system to continuing education ,one must not forget that this ideal city –like the greek polis in general –is an educational city . its citizens are required to perform different function in the course of their lives they must obey and judge . they participate in the service of the gods which is linked to initiation rites . they attend performances of tragedies .tthese go to make up set of element that contribute to continuing education .as we have seen education was for Aristotle the affair of the state . school should be public . here aristotle ,like plato ,was far ahead of his time .for the education of children in the greek polis was matter for the family . with the exception of physical sducation nd military instruction all forms of tuition were private. The introduction of public education always indicates a certain democratization of education . Education must be one and same for all .but up to what age ? twenty one ? the texts tell us .but at no point does Aristotle mention selection ,though he repeatedly emphasizes that moral and intellectual gifts are unevenly distributed . it is remarkable that Aristotle seem not to have prescribed any form of selection or competition in his system of education in a Greece which set a high value on all form of competition .nevertheless ,this democratic form of education has its limits in that it is reversed for children of citizen . Altought Aristotle does not say so and policity .there is no access for the children of agriculturists ,artisans , and retail , traders .as for slaves ,they are not considered as complete human being in any case . but it seem probable that Aristotle prescribed some sort oa vocational training for tradesmen as quite frequently refers to the importance of good apprenticeship for the proper practice of the trade .and in certain conditions he even prescribes as form of education for slaves; since we observe that education shapes the character of the young persons it is also essential ,when one has acquired salves to provide education for hose who are destined for liberal occupations . Aristotle thus poses the question of the content of education .once again his answer has reached us only in fragment . and it appears that the part are the most original . in principal ,young people should be instructed in such useful acquirement ,as are really necessary . occupation are divided into liberal and illiberal . By useful acquirement Aristotle mean such subjects as grammer ,arithmetic .drawing and physical training, but certainly not manual work or anything that could lead to paid work ,which is described menial. furthermore , young people must be taught to fill their leisure time nobly. Hence ,there are branches of learning and education which must be studied simply with a view to leisure spent in cultivating the mind .it is likewise clear that these studies are be valued for their own sake , while those pursued for the sake of an occupation must be looked upon as no more than necessary mean to other end . pedagogy politics ends abruptly with a remark on education .clearly ,than there are three standards to which musical education shoud conform.they are the mean , the possible ,and the proper ,…, like all his practical philosophy , Aristotle s theory of education is grounded in good sense . extremes and excesses are above all to be avoided .and musical education should be more concerned with the pleasure of listening to music than with virtuosity. The next point is that pupils shoud not be ask to do more than their ability permits .thus ,young men should be given lesson on political science as they have no experience in practical matters. In genral it is necessary to take account of the intellectual level of pupils as argument is not powerfull with all men. lastly ,education be limited to what is appropriate for the pupils ,taking account of hos age ,character,and so on . In accordance with mans nature ,which is composed of the body ,the soul and reason ,education shoud proceed in stage .care of the soul should be preceded by that of the body ,which must be followed immediately by training of the appetites ,however ,should be directed to the benefit of the mind ,and care of the body to that of the soul. Reason and intellect only begin with physical training continue with music abd conclude with philosophy . Aristotle identifies two complementary education categories education through reason and education through habit .for Aristotle s education through habit does not mean a sort of training involving automatic repetition . what he mean s by this expression is what we to day would cap active learning . moreover ,in the nichomachean ethics he emphasizes that for the things we have to learn before we can do them ,we learn by doing them e.g . men become builders by building and lyre – players by playing the lyre .this is also true of moral education ,we become just by doing just acts ,temperate by doing temperate acts brave by doing brave acts.it is through habit or active learning that natural disposition develop .but education through habit is not limited to the learning of arts and techniques and to the development of moral attitudes ,but also concerns scientific education .it is through the practice of science that the possessor of science becomes learned in actuality . For Aristotle education is not something to which the pupil must passively submit .on the contrary ,it is action that counts.here too the theory of education faithfully reflects the main lines of Aristotelian philosophy as a whole.and this action is source of pleasure for the pupil . Aristotle is clearly enough of a realist to see that young people are to be governed not only by pleasure but also by pain .there can be no doubt that Aristotle was a arther authoritarian educator. Education through habit is connected with three notion ,which should be mentioned . imitation, experience,and memory. Man likes to imitate,all the arts are based on an imitation of nature . but imitation is also an essential source of lessons and education . imitation is a distinctive feature of man from hischildhood Imitation separated him foram the animals and it is through imitation that he acquires his earliest knowledge .but a good esample is needed if imitation is to serve the cause of moral education without a good example there can be a no good imitation and that is true in all areas . some virtues and typ of knowledge can only be acquired through experience. The effect of habit is based on the phenomenon of memory to which Aristotle devotes a text include in the parva naturalia . he underscores the imaginative nature of memory and the importance of repeated acts of recollection Aristotle the educator We are familiar with Aristotle the researcher ,the founder of sciences the logician and the philosopher ,the master of those who know .but we know little of Aristotle the educator . historians have not been greatly interested in what he has to say about education . Yet Aristotle devoted as much time to teaching as to research . he is the prototype of the profeesor .his teaching and lectures are the part of his work that has been handed down to us over 2,300 years , a pedagogical concern and educational dimension are present throughout his writing .it is high time a study was made of Aristotle approach to education as revealed in his lectures .this would highlight his characteristic manner of posing a porablem and then discussing it by approaching in foram different angles probing it.we can discussing here the didactic metod of Socratic and platonic dialogs.unfortunately ,the dilogs that Aristotle wrote to popularize the fruits of hid research have all been lost. Such a study would also point out the way in which he illustrate his lectures with example.quotation ,references and images. Aristotle was an academic throughout his career.at the age of 18 he entered one of the most renowned center of leaning of his day,plato sacademy ,where he become noted for the passion with which he devoted himself to his studies ,particulary to reading a trait which won him the nickname of reader . he t then built up first great library ,which served as model for libraries of Alexandria and pergamon . he become a lecturer in rhetoric and a rebellious one too,openly and passionately criticizing the doctrines of plato , his master and forerunner ,who reportedly said of him , Aristotle has kiked me just as a colt kiks its master . after plato death ,Aristotle left athen for assosin Syria and three years later Settled at mytilini on the island of lesbos. There he engaged in many typs of research ,particularly in biology. Unit3 Saint Augustine Aurelius augustinus ,more commonly known as st. Augustine ,was born to a Christian mother and pagan father in Algeria,northern Africa. He brought a systematic metod of philosophy to Christian theology . One of the decisive development in the western philosophical tradition was the eventually widespread merging of the greek Philosophical traditions and the judeo - Christ religious and scriptural traditions. Augustine is one of the main figures through and by whom this merging was accomplished .he is as well , one of the towering figures of medieval philosophy whose authority and thought came to exert a pervasive and enduring influence well in to the modern period (e.g, his influnceon the French philosopher ,scientist ,and mathematician,rene Descartes (1596-1650) .sometimes called the father of modern philosophy)and even up to the present day. There is much in August thought that is worthy serious philosophical attention For anyone interested in philosophy. Augustine is not only one of the majer source whereby classicalphilosophy enters in to early and subsequent medieval philosophy but there are significant contributions of his own that emerge from his modification of that Greco -roman inheritance e.g his subtle account of belief and authority ,his account of knowledge and illumination his emphasis upon the importance and centrality of the will ,just to cite a few of the more conspicuous exsample. He was a classically –trained rhetorician who used his slill to eloquently proclaim a lenght the superiority of Christian culture over Greco –roman culture ,and he also served as one of the central figures by whom the latter was transformed and transmitted to the former . Following plato August argued that the ability to make true judgments never can be inserted in to the mind from outside . the human teacher never can do more than help his pupile to see himself what he already knew without being aware of it .augustine favorite example of these intuitive judgment are the proposition of mathematics and the appreciation of moral value ,they are not the construction of the individual mind , because when properly formulate .they areaccepted by all mind alike .the individual thinker dose not make the truth .he finds it,and he is able to do so because Christ ,the revealing word of god ,is the inward teacher ,who enable him to see the truth for himself when he listen to him . St.augustine claimed that human knowledge would be impossible if god did not illuminate the human and thereby allow it to see ,grasp ,or understand ideas. There are two components to this theory ;ideas and illumination .idea as August construed them ,are the same as plato s they are timeless ,immutable , and accessability only to the mind ,not to the senses. They are indeed ,in some mysterious way ,part of god and seen in god. Illumination the other element of the theory was for August and hismany followers. At least through the 14th century, at technical term ,built upon a metaphor .since the mind is immaterial ,it cannot be literally lighted . Yet the entire theory of illumination rested upon the visual metaphor of the he human mind as an eye that can see when and only wen god the source of light ,illumintates it. Still ,it is a powerfull metaphor relied upon even in the 17th century by rene Descartes . Furthermore ,August argues that even our ability to learn from other presupposes that what they tell us can be reduced to elements with which one has had some prior acquaintance .for August as for many classical thinkers ,language is kind of third –realm entity . belonging neither to the world nor to the mind ,it is an instrument used by mind to communicate about the world outside them ,and direct acquaintance is what explains its ability to do so . thus learning from others is a matter of bing reminded of prior acts which we have been directly acquainted . Saint August s view on psychology and epistemology Saint August argues that there isnm never any question that human life is to be conceived in term of the categories of body and soul and that an adequate understand ing of the soul is necessary for appreciation of our place within the moral landescap around us. Here Augustine is best understood in light of the greek philosophical tradition ,in which soul need not have any spiritual connotation . it is instead ,the principal that account for intuitively obvious distinction between thing that are living and thing that are not . to be alive is to have a soul ,and death involves a process leading to absence of this principle.thus not only do human being have soul ,but so do plant and other animals .augustine s view is not unlike what one finds ,for example in plato s or Aristotle view where different levels of soul are discussed in term of ascending degrees of complexity in their capacities e .g . soul capable only of reproduction and rational thinking there is an asymmetry in these functional capacities and reason is seen as higher than the other . indeed ,Augisuste psychology focuses upon the asymmetrical and dominant relation that reason is supposed to exert over other capacities For August ine ,however ,it is virtually axiomatic that the human soul is both immaterial and immortal.it is worth nothing in this connection that while the christen scriptural clearly alludes to thr idea of postmortem existence ,the issue of the soul immateriality is an other matter . it is not obvious that the scriptural Tradition requires this. He insists upon the soul mutability as beign necessary to account for moral progress and deterioration. In the psychology that emerges in some of his work .augustine posits a three –fold hierarchy of thing that merely exist ,thing that exist and live ,and possess understanding . While he maintains that plants have souls ,his primary interest is in souls capable of understanding .augustine s psychology tends to focus upon cognitive capacities .begining with sense perception and working up to reason . It is only when we go above the sense and turn to reason ,however , that we reach what is distinctively human . in other words ,it is an undeniable fact that only humans are capable of reasoning .for Augustine , reason is the cognitive apex of the human soul , because it distinguishes us foram other creatures . One feature of Augustine epistemology is his willingness to accept that much of our Belief about the world must as matter of practical necessity , rest upon trust and authority . we cannot hope to verify all our beliefs a bout history and even many beliefs a bout the present are matter of trust.he emphasizes the role of belief as opposed to understanding pointing out nor only that belief is a necessary condition of understanding. August s suggestion that learning is a matter of being reminded of prior acts of direct acquaintance rest upon a set of common sense assumption . this is itself an important point , for much of August s stratege in presenting his epistemology is to exploit the relatively unproblematic nature of our relation to the sensible world and then to reason. The question we are supposed to ponder is given that learning is realy mattrof being remineded ,what does this imply a bout our relation to those truths that can not be accounted for by sense perception ? August ine besides mathematical and logical truths ,presents some example .he reminds us such truths the awareness that seek a happiness that goes beyond anything we have experienced in this lif ,that good is to be sought and evil avoided ,and that there is something above and more reliable tham the huaman mind these are the kind of examples that Augustine regards as obliging us to reject the notion that our relation to the sensible world is sufficient to account for all our beliefs and belive that there must be something more ,so to speak ,to complete the picture That something more is provided by the doctorine of illumination ,the theses that god ply an active role in human cognition by somehow illuminating the individual s mind so that can perceive the intelligible realities of the world .however .augustine is notoriously vague as to the precise detailes and machanica of this divine illumination . August s theory of illumination In the account of illumination, Augustine use an analogy as old as plato ,according to which he mind s relation to intelligible objective is like the relation of the sense to sensible objects. In both case ,there is need for an external object to be presented to the relevant capacity , as well as the need for invironment that is conducive to the relevant capcity . in the case of vision for example , this would be light ,in thr case of the mind s discernment of intelligible object ,augaustine characterizes his as an intellectual illumination that occurs within us by that which is above us .illumination is something that is available to all rational mind .to the atheistic mathematician as well as the pious farmer measuring a field. Ivicnna (ibn sina) Theachnig methods Infant under 6 years. Avicenna is concerned at this stage wuth the child s are not aware of Avicenna having indicated any specific methods at this stage ,apart from physical exercise and music ,one for the child growth and his physical and motor development ,so that he should acquire moral and mental habits ,and the other or refine his feeling and heighten his emotions . Avicenna is very much concerned with games at this age ,as well as in primary education . he show us The role of exercise in education and its necessary place in the child life ,and explain that exercise differs According to age ,and also with the child ability . for exercise may be much or little ,it can be very vigorous, demanding considerable considerable physical strength .and speed ,and again it can be relaxing each of these types has its own appropriate place and necessary in the life of the young child. But Avicenna is as concerened with play and exercise at this level of education as he is with musical education . we know that Avicenna was skilled in this art ,both as a composer and a performer . so it is in the capacity of an expert that he mention the feeling of pleasure ,joy ,purity ,and the sense of exaltation that music bring a bout in the child and also the way the child can learn to perceive harmony and discord treble and bass and how this comes a bout .avicenna speaks at length a bout music its composition and rhythm ,and the instrument used . So sport and music are most important components of the metod in the this stage .they are two metod of instruction that prepare the child for organized ,primary teaching ,in the next stage . when he reaches 6 years of age . Metods at the primary stage (6to14years) the componets of study in this stage are the Koran and its memorization ,learning to read and write ,acquiring the outlines of religion and study of some Arabic poetry besides which he is again aware of need for play and exercise . The curriculum put forward by Avicenna reminds us of society s concern at that time with Islamic culture and this basic element. The Koran poetry devoutness and ethics .on the other hand ,he does not ignore the child need for play ,movement and diversion ,so that in curriculum does not realy differ very much from that followed by the modern child in the majority of Islamic countries to day ,except for its concentration upon memorizing the Koran and giving this learning absolute priority . Methods of higher instruction (age 14 onwards) instruction at this stage is specialized according to the pupil future occupation , which has been chosen depending on his inclination and aptitudes .this is an open ended education ,meaning that continue throughout life . Avicenna say when he has finished learning the Koran and memorizing the fundamentals of the language ,at the time ,one should lookintowhatoccupation is desired for him and he should be directed oh this path if his teacher or guardian wishes him to study literature ,then to the study to language he adds that of epistles speeches ,agument and dialog ,and similar subject calculation is explained ,and he is initiated in to administration through a practical course. The aim of education :Avicenna s education views Avicenna sees the aim of education as the overall growth of the individual physical ,mental, and moral ,followed by preparation to live in socity through a chosen trade according to his aptitudes .so Avicenna education does not neglect physical development and everything implied by it .physical exercise ,food and drink .sleep and cleanliness. It dose not aim exclusively at intellectual development and amassing of knowledge likewise Avicenna does not devote his attention to the moral aspect alone , but aims at the formation of a personality complete in body mind and character .he does not restrict the task of education to creating the complete citizen but rather sees that education must also prepare him for profession whereby he can contribute to the socity ,in Avicenna view ,is built entirely on cooperation on the specialization of each individual in a craft or profession and on the mutual exchange of services between its individual . Although Avicenna was a philosopher and thus belonged to group of people who belived that greek thought was that of an educate elite and that philosophy had an undisputed superiority over all others ,yert for him of education was not restricted to training of philosophr. Therefore Avicenna made the education of the philosopher ,one of his educational aim among others at the specialization stage ,to which anyone who whished could direct himself in accordance whit his aptitudes and inclination . this is the difference between his education system and that of al-gh azali for example or al-qabisi s .for while we find that the education of the philosopher ,was hardly included in their writing ,Avicenna goes in to great detail a bout it ,the sciences which should he studied ,and the aim and the benefits of each one of them . We can say then that education in Avicenna s opinion is the forming of an upright citizen ,sound in body and mind ,and preparing him for some intellectual or practical work . intellectual work could be connected whit the traditional sciences or the theoretical sciences that Avicenna esteemed so higly .he count industry or crafts as kind of instruction requiring vocational preparation and specialization. He says instruction and learning include ,the practical ,like learning carpentry and dyeing for ot only acquired by diligent practice of that craft Avicenna s veiwof teacher role Avicenna perceives how important it is to make a good choice a teacher and to give him a good theoretical amd moral traning indeed ,the teacher s role in educating young people goes beyond presenting them with fact for student aquire from their teacher a great many habit ,ideas and values .therfor .avicenna requires that teacher should be an excellent person , discerning the value of socity and moral virtues so that the student will follow him as a guid and model . Avicenna say ; The educator must be intellgint ,a man of religion , skillful at instructing children ,dignified ,calm , far removed from foolishness or pleasantries .not given to levity neither rigid nor dull, on the contrary ,he should be kind and understanding virtuous ,clean and correct . he is one who has served the leaders of the nation know the kingly virtues in which they take pride and correct manners used in society. Avicenna noticed that the teacher not only conveys knowledge and facts to his student ,but brings them in to contact whit those value and idea in which he belive ,and those manners and virtues whit which he is endowed .if he for his part transmits knowledge with care and feeling ,then the student will copy his manners and his virtues, effortlessly and without realizing in the process of learning by imitation . This glance at Avicenna educational thinking shows him to be an original thinker ,whit distinctive educational view for his period . in addition ,he was leader of a philosophical school which influnced education both in the Islamic east and the Christian west .for these many reasons ,we still have great deal to learn from him to day. Unit5 Abu hamid al –ghazali The concept of knowledge and metod s of teaching Al –ghazali was bron in a .d 1058 (a.h.450_) in or near the city of tus in khurasan to a Persian family of modest mean ,whose members had a reputation for learning and inclination towards Sufism . as a scholar and teacher ,al ghazali was interestsd in the problem of knowledge .its concept metod ,categories ,and aim . true knowledge in al-ghazali view ,is knowledge of god ,his book ,his prophetse the kingdoms of earth and heaven ,as well as knowledge is tus a religious scince ,even if it includes the study of certion wordly phenomena .disciplines relating to this world ,such as medicine , arithmetic ,,ect are classed as techniques. Al- ghazali distinguishes clearly between two types of curriculum : 1-obligatory science ,which must be studid by everyone ,including the religious science and related or ancillary disciplines such a linguistics and literature 2- optional sciences ,which are studied according to the wishes and capacities of the student . these are in turn divided in to (a)revealed sciences ,of which there are four ; (i) the fundamentals (the book ,sunna,ijma ,and the teachings of the companions of the prophrt(ii)the teache The criterion governing The choice of subjects their usefulness for the student and for society . hence religious subjects are preferred since they are conducive to the godliness of the eternal than the mundaneness of this transient world. Al-gazali clarifies his concept of the content and metod of teaching by classfing the subjects students may choose in to three categories ; 1-knowledge that his praiseworthy whether in small or large a mounts (knowledge of god ,his attributes ,his action , the law which he established in his creation ,and his wisdom in given pre-eminence to the hereafter over this worlds). 2- knowledge that is reprehensible whether in small or large amounts (witchcraft ,magic ,astrology) 3- knowledge that is praiseworthy to a certain extent (tafser .hadith, fiqh , kalam , linguistic , grammer . He recommends beginning with the fundamental science ,the Koran followed by sunna ,the tafser ,and the koranic science . these are to be followed by applied ethics –fiqh , then the sources of fiqh ,ect, Al-ghazali then divides each branch of knowledge in to three levels; elementary intermediate and advanced (primary ,secondly ,and higher )and he lists the books that may be studied at each level of the various sciences and subjet of study. In al-ghazali eyes ,education is not merely a process whereby the teacher imparts knowledge ,which the pupil may or may not absorb ,he which teacher and pupil each go their separate way. Rather ,it is an interaction affecting the teacher and pupil eqally ,the former gaining merit for giving instruction and latter cultivating himself through the acquisition of knowledge . Al- ghazali attaches great importance to the climate in which teaching take place ,and to the kind of relation that are tradition .for him ,the teacher should be model and example ,not merely a purveyor or medium of knowledge . his work is not limited to the teaching of particular subject ,rather ,it should encompass all aspect of the personality and life of the pupil . the pupil ,in turn has a duty to consider the teacher as father ,to whom he owes obedience and respect . Among the principles governing the art of teaching al-ghazali stresses that teaching should be linked to concrete situations and emphasizes the need for various types of knowledge and skill . whenever a particular knowledge or skill is needed it should be taught in such a way as to meet that need and to be functional . he also stresses that learning is only effective when it is put in to practice .and is aimed at inculcating the right habits rather than simply memorizing information . al-ghazali comes close to the idea of proficiency learning ,when he recommends that the teacher should not move on foram one subject matter to another without first ensuring that the pupil has mastered the first subject matter and concept of the complementary of science , when he advises that the teacher should pay attention to the interconnectendness of knowledge and relation between is various branches .finally he counsels a gradual and patient approach in teaching . Scholars teacher and pupils Al-ghazali represents the traditional Islamic approach in his insistence on the important of scholars (the inheritors of the prophets) in societye .he defines the role of the scholar in society as( a) seeking to attain the truth .(b) cultivating his innermost and acting in accordance with knowledge he has attained ,(c) disseminating the truth and teaching other without desire or fear . The scolar who doesn’t use his knowledge .but who withholds it and doesn’t disseminate it .shall be punished .the standing of scolars is determined in accordance with the standing of the science of the science they work in ; the religious science begin more important than temporal science ,figh mor significant than medicine ,medicine more noble than witchcraft ,than science of unveiling more important than those of transaction . Al –ghazali is faced with two important questions ; the relationship of scolar is to seek the truth and disseminate it , teaching is duty for the scolar .al-ghazali is very close to the idea of the society of teachers and learner .in his opinion ,teaching id not thr duty of scolar and teachers alone, anyone who learn something has a duty it . Al-ghazali consider the seeking of knowledge as foram of worship and teaching as duty and obligation .and indeed most excellent profession . teacher are indispensable to socity . sufi influence is clearly in evidence in his writing ,particularly with regard to the need for schoolteacher and the qualities, they should posses ,which include erudition ,renunciation of world ,spiritual accomplishment devotion frugality morality etc .al-ghazali propose a professional code of ethics for teacher who he say , should practice what they preach ,and be an example to their pupil and to people in general .he then proceeds to advise student (especially those in higher education) to divide their day in the following manner ,spending from dawn to sunrise invocation of god and private worship from sunrise to mind morning seeking knowledge from their professor ,from mind - morning to mind afternoon in writing notes and hmaking fair copies from mind afternoon to sunset in attending hrarned gathering or in performing rites of invocation ,beggin forgiveness or glorification of god the first third of night should be spent in reading the second third in prayer and the final third in sleep . Finally he propose a code ethic whereby student 1. Ensure that are before they undertake the quest for knowledge 2. divest themselves of teir wordly possession, detach themselves from hearth and home and devote themselves to the search for knowledge and the pursuit of the hereafter . 3. respect the rights of their teachers and behave in a civil manner toward them . 4. beware , specially at the beginning of their studies ,of paying too much attention to doctrinal controversies 5. master the fundamental of the praiseworthy scinces (linguistics , tafsir, hadith , figh and kalam ) and then specialize by studies one or more of those science in greater depth 6. choose useful subject in which to specialize , especially those that are conducive to salvation in the hereafter. 7. study each subject thoroughly before going on to another ,bearing in mind the logical sequence and interconnectedness of the various disciplines 8. have as their main goal in their search for knowledge the cultivation and perfection of the innermost self in this world ,and proximity to god in the hereafter ,rather than the attainment of high office or the acqusistion of wealth or fame . the impact of al-ghaza al-ghazali died at the age of 55 (according to the hegira calendar)after a life that was not as long as it was productive .wide –ranging and influential . he is rightly considered to be one of the most important and profound islamc thinkers ,who was aptly called the renovator of the fifth entury a.h al-ghazali influence may be witnessed by a number of factors such as 1. the profundity power and comprehensiveness of his thought contained in some fifty different worke ,the most important of which are thya ulum ad-din tahafut and al-munquidh min a-alal.which are still studied to day . 2. the fact that this view were well suited to his age and milieu and were more a reflection of that age than a response to its need and requirement-they constituted more an element of continuity and conservation than a factor of renewal and change . 1. after al –ghazali Islamic socity and thought entered in to long period of stagnation and decline ,and produced few other great mind .al-ghazali has thus remaind alive and influential the philosophy of al-ghazali the main theme of al-ghazali philosophy and indeed of Islamic philosophy in general .is concept of god and his relationship with his creation (the world and manknind)although al-ghazali initially followed the mainstream of Islamic figh in describing the essence and attributes of god and sufi undercurrents in definging the relationship between god and mankind he then goes on propose his owen conception the essence attributes and actions like many legal experts and philosophy .al-ghazali divides his universe in to transient world and the eternal hereafter . this world ,or material ,temporary existence is subject to the will of god , it is not governed by set of scientific law ,which from integral part of the world ,but is maintained ,governed and driven by the direct and continual intervention of god .(rejection of causality) god is not only the creator of the uneverse and of attributes and laws (or the cause of existence) .he is also the cause of every event in the world ,great and small ,past ,present ,and future. In the universe lives man a creature with an immortal soul and mortal body . man is neither good nor evil by nature ,though his natural disposition is closer to good than evil. Furthermore ,he operates within constrained framework .within which there more compulsion than freedom of choice . he is not so much meant for this world ,in which he toils ,as for the hereafter ,to which he must aspire and strive to achieve. Unit6 Jan amos comenius When we go through the mass of comenius writing it is extremely difficult to pick out the guiding idea of the system ,which is full of obscurities and sometimes ,apparent contradiction . In the first place how are we account for the fact that a theologian enamored of metaphysics and imbued with the speculative spirit of the seventeenth century should have concerned himself with education to the point of creating a great didactic .there were indeed many educational institution in which certain special metods had been developed. And these had been described . ratke and lasted ,for instance ,were probably the first to draw comenius attention to teaching problem ,especially in the fild of language instruction . but there was a long way to go before building up a whole philosophy of education and centering a still broader system around it. Thinker and philosopher ,from montaigne and robelis to Descartes and Leibniz ,had likewise made profound remark a bout education but only as corollaries to their main idea . not only was comenius the first to conceive a full-scale science of educati on ,but let in be repeated ,he made it the verey core of a pansophy ,which in his thinking was to constitute a general philosophic system . how can we explain so original and unucal a statement of ptoblem ,in the middle of the seventeenth century. The spirit which comenius sought to write the unfinished work known as the general consultation was the best proof that the art of teaching was intended to be the core of pansophy itself ,it also incidentally , account for the failure of the enterprise . Instead of building up in the abstract that total individual body of knowledge ,that universal science that was to be pansophy –the doctrine of the progressive achievement of the world of idea ,within the superimposed world whose parallel strate from the universe –comenius was forced because he was pursuing a didactic as well as a philosophy aim(and this ,by the way ,is the most interesting aspect of the work), to make simplifications and assimilation which finally proved too much for him . he wished to construct his owen system .but he also cherished the ambition of providing a kind of introduction to philosophy for all. Such an undertaking was unique in the seventeenth century. Hence the same problem ;how are we to explain his merging of need for systematic basis for education with general philosophy speculation .? Education according to comenius is not merely the training of child at school or in the home it is a process affecting man whole life and the countless social adjustment the must make . Society as a whole is considered by comenius sub specie education . the great princinational peace and international organization of education that make him a forerunner of so many modern institution and terneds of thought likewise stem in his work ,from this unique synthesis between nature and man ,which we have just suggested as the central element of his as the central element ofhis speculation and as the explanation was matter of techniques superimposed by theory or of general observation without any attempt to constitute a science of teaching education . The key of these difficulties can be discovered only if we can find more complex basic concept in comenius philosophy than those which are oridinarily taken concept whose very pattern is such as to make it possible to restate the central idea of the system in modern tem . this explain the twofold impression of outmoded from and up –to –data substance which one continually recive when reading the great educationalists works. In these respect comenuius metaphysics lies between scholasticism as inspired by Aristotle and the mechanicalism of the seventeeth century . everyone can see the kinship between his philosophy and bacon but in respect of impericism ,this connection should not be overstressed the main point to be kep T in mind in the return to nature and the instauration magna. The Aristotelian language used in comenius is evident enough but he constantly tend to replace the immobile hierarchy of froms by the concepts of advance and emergence ,and by the idea of parallelism of harmony among various kingdoms Comenius education career Jan amos comeniuse lived from 1 he felt it was necessary for children to see what the world look like with the help of pictures 592 -1670 he was a protestant bishop who reform the education system .even though this childhood was an unfortunate one ,comenius strived to become one of most optimistic educator .not only did he come from poor family but this family died from a plague in1604. since that time ,he studied different languages and went ministry . comenius become the most sought-after teacher in europe in the 17th century . His works reflect that of a realist .comenius was the first person to put pictures in text. He felt it was necessary for children to see what the world look like whith the help of picture. Orbis pictus was written in 1638 and was the first childrens picture book . the book later led audio –visual techniques in the classroom .after Sweden saw his work they asked him to organize and manage their school . in 1642 he prepared school texts for sixs years. Comenuis wrote a book called didactica magna . this book described a very different educational system . He bileved that school should be organized in stage from easy to hardest he also thought teacher should be kinder to the children instead of being harsh . language was also important to him . he mostly taught latin but he also attempted to write in other languages . comenuis felt that teaching in different language was beneficial to very child wanting to learn. In later years , comenius becam very interested in the sciences . he started what became his pansophic views with three tasks inolved . the first task is for European scientist to state all goal and knowledge in an encyclopedia establishing a college to provide labs for scientific research is the second task. The last task is to have access to knowledge in all fields (the encyclopedia of education ). Comenius wanted to make this learning universal ,and his book consulatation (1640) describes these pansophic views . however ,it wasn’t completely published until 1960 During the 17th centur .comenius also stood up for women . it was belived by many that women were incapable of learning and comenius stated that was a denial of the divine will and a waste of their proven capacity to learn For everyone ,education should coexist with their life and go beyond the school classroom. Jan amos comenius wasn’t highly intelligent man . he used simple ideas to create an impressionable education system . being a realist his idea about nature set the tone of his work .being a bishop his religious beliefs were also incorporated in to teachings. He belived learning should be interesting dramatic ,and stimulating . Comenuis had built a protestant school in plato . the school was named schola ludas and it still stood tall in 1886 . before he died in 1670,he had devised seven school .one for each stage of life . the first stage was the school of becoming and the last stage was school of death . He also completed 150 major and 50 smaller or uncompleted work comenuis reformed the teaching of language and organized school in way that his idea still exist in some school to day .cominus wanted universal education for every one in the most practical .optimistic and innovative ways possible. He some aspects he achieved that goal. Comenius biography Have you ever heard of jon amos comenius ? do not be too overwhelmed with grief if you have not. In our day ,most of world has not heard of him . regardless of you denominational ddistinction ,comenius is someone Christian should become familiar whit . he wrote over 154 book in his lifetime ,even after all his an amazing and prolific educator ,and has been in the father of modern education . Born in march 27,1592 orphaned early educated at universities of herborn and heideberg , comenius began working as a pastor and parochial school principal in 1618 ,the year the thirty year war began . after the defeat of the protestant armies in the battle of white mountain –one of the most disastrous event in Czech history –he barely escaped with his life while enemy soldiers burned down his house . later his young wife and two small children died of the plague . for seven years he lived life to fugitive in his owen land ,hiding in deserted huts, in caves ,even in hollow trees . early in 1628 he joined one the of the small group of protestant who fled their native Moravia to await better time in neighboring Poland . he never saw his homeland again . His life characterized by constant moving ,despair and turmoil (this was part of the reason his second wife become ill and died ) however ,he composed many works on education aand become famous all over Europe through his writing . he published some of the first picture books for children , as well as writing a work around pansophic that gained him wide renown . what does pansophic aaactially refer to ? comenius belived there was only one truth . the light of reson must submit in obedience to the will of god . this is comenius fundamental pedagogical and pansophic principale .in England the English unknowingly to him , published his notes on the topic and then invited to come to England to work there in opening a new school . after arriving unfortunately , civil war broke out and stopped the possibility of school . Comenius then traveled to Sweden ,though invited by both france and Holland to continue his work . he had faith in the Swedish chancellor oxenstierna .to implore him to help the bohemian people when the treaty of peace would calm the tumultuous storms of the countery affairs . the treaty of Westphalia was pivotal in ceasing the thirty years war ,but it was more of a help to Lutherans and Calvinists rather than some of the small groups . the bretheren in bohemia whom he longed to care for were still oppressed . oxenstierna had forgotten him . unfortunately .comenius never returned home ,and died while in Holland . John locke Parent and children Johan lock brought to the practice of education his own considered views on such subjects as philosophy psychology Christianity and government .his medical knowledge contributed to concern for physical , as well as the mental and spiritual , well being of children . the opening phrase of the thoughts a sound mind in a sound body is a short ,but full description Of a happy state in this world , a quotation from juvenal and indeed given in latin in the letter to the Clarke family and in manuscripts prior to the first edition launches the book in to discussion a bout the health of the child . locke advice in this view on plenty of open air ,exercise and sleep . plain diet no wine or strong drink and very little or no physick would command general support to day ,though his advice on toughening the feet by wearing thin or leaky shoes so That gentle men s sons might acquire the ability .if necessary ,to go barefoot as the poor do .might seem to be somewhat harsh .locke advocacy of the benefits of cold water extended to teaching children to swim both for general promotion of their health and the preservation of life Food for children .according to locke should be plain and wholesome with sugar .salt and spices used sparingly other recommendation desingned to accustom children to cope with minor physical were that beds should not be excessively comfortable no mealtimes necessarily regular .one element of regularity ,however enjoined by lock at some lengt Was important of bowel action. From the body lock turnrd to the mind . that parents should personally exercise firm and close author ity over their children from and early age , whit a view to relaxing this a they grew older . fear and awe ought to give you the first power over their mind ,and love friendship in riper year to hold it . locke criticized the over –indulgence of little children and abhorred obstinate crying on their part, but had little use application of esteem and disgrace . enjoined parents to set a good example ,and warned against the intervention of servant who by their flatteries … take off the edge and force of the parents rebukes and so lessen their authority.(thoughts) He advised parents and tutors to study their children and note their dispositions and dislikes. For a child will learn three times as much when he awkwardly or is dragged unwillingly to it . toys should be somple and sturdy ,possible fashioned by the children themselves .rather than expensive and fragile. Understandably given his owen experiences and role s in life ,locke urged upon the clarkes the material of a tutor rather than school. For licke the best means of education was that children should from their first beginning to tallk have some discreet,sober any wise person about whose care it should be to fashion them aright ,and keep them from all ill especially the infection of bad company .and he advised parent to spare no care nor cost to get such an one . A good tutor ,or indeed a good parent ,whold be able to encourage and to satisfy the proper and persistent question of children ,to gudie them away from cruelty to wards animals or othe children and teach them the value of truth. The thoughts were written for specific purpose ;The education of the son of a country gentleman . fundamental features of the education of the employment of tutor ,the close supervision by parent ,the curriculum even the details of diet –whould have been available only to a very small proportion of the parent and children of seventeenth –century England . Locke was well aware of the niceties of rank and fortune and proposed different routes for the son prince a nobleman and an ordinary gentleman son .locke belived in a top down approach to education and that priority should be given tO the sons of the gentry . in the dedicatory epistle to the thought he state that if those of that rank are by their education once set right ,they will quicly bring all the rest in to order . A theory of knowledge Although the thought waas most immeditately concernsd with wducation ,by far the most important of locke writing and one which had great significance for education ,was the essay concerning human understanding (hereafter referred to as the essay) .the essay originated in1671 when loke record in his espistle to the reader a group of fivr . Ethics-=moral Pe rfection= attaiment Capable= merit Conveys = transmits Rational=intellectual= intelligible Vigorous=storange= strength Aptitudes=coapcity Contribute= cooperatione Vocational= occupations=jop=work in place =career= craft Essential=necessary =need Useful= benefit pleasure =enjoy argued=discuss distinction=different quest=seek milieu=envarment

 

page rank google به عوامل مختلفی بستگی دارد ،که به ترتیب مهم بودن آن عبارت اند از :
۱- مطالب آن در رابطه با موضوع مورد جستجو
۲- موتورهای جست و جو اهمیت صفحات وب را بر اساس میزان لینک به آن طبقه بندی می کنند .
۳- چنانچه لینک بیشتری در سایر پایگاه ها ثبت کنید رتبه بالاتری کسب خواهید کرد .
۴- تبادل لینک بین سایت های هم خانواده یعنی سایت هایی که موضوع مشابهی دارند ، موجب افزایش رتبه در موتورهای جست و جو خواهد شد .
۵- شرکت در بحث های رایج در تالارهای بحث و تبادل نظر ، گفتمان و یا گفت و گو و درج لینک در محل امضا یا در متن بحث به افزایش رتبه شما موتورهای جست و جو کمک موثری خواهد نمود.

اما در واقع چه عواملی در بالا بردن رتبه شما نقش دارند ؟
۱ – طراحی اصولی سایت
۲ – دقت در نوشتن برچسب های متا ( متاتگ )
۳- بهینه سازی سایت برای موتورهای جست و جو
۴- موتورهای جست و جو حساسیت ویژه ای نسبت به نام صفحه و توضیحات صفحه دارند
۵- بر خلاف تصور اغلب طراحان وب کلمات کلیدی نقش کمتری ایفا می کنند
۶- چنانچه مقاله ای می نویسید و مایلید که مقاله شما در نتایج جست و جو قرار گیرد بهتر است آن را در یک صفحه مجزا قرار دهید و در در قسمت نام صفحه عنوان مقاله را بنویسید page title

براي تبادل لينک ابتدا مارا با عنوان دانلود رایگان نمونه سوالات وآدرس"http://mehre9.mihanblog.com" لينک نماييد سپس مشخصات لينک خود را در زير ارسال کنيد . در صورت وجود لينک ما در سايت شما لينکتان به طور خودکار در سايت ما قرار ميگيرد.
پس از ارسال مشخصات و مشاهده فرمان سيستم سايت را "Refresh" کنيد تا لينکتان را در قسمت لينک هاي تبادلي مشاهده کنيد.